The Deterrence Dilemma: Assessing Criminal Liability Standards for Emerging Digital Offenses in the AI Era

Budi Kristian; Tubagus Ahmad Ramadan

doi:10.71250/rlr.v3i3.86

Authors

Budi Kristian Universitas Pamulang
Tubagus Ahmad Ramadan Universitas Pamulang

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.71250/rlr.v3i3.86

Keywords:

artificial intelligence, criminal liability, digital crime, deterrence theory, legal certainty

Abstract

The exponential growth of artificial intelligence technology has presented unprecedented challenges to traditional criminal accountability frameworks, particularly in dealing with AI-based digital crimes that operate beyond conventional mens rea doctrines. This study examines the adequacy of Indonesia's criminal law provisions in regulating autonomous AI systems and proposes comprehensive accountability standards to achieve optimal deterrence while ensuring legal certainty. Using normative juridical methodology with legislative, conceptual, and comparative approaches, this study analyzes primary legal materials including Law Number 1 of 2023 concerning the Criminal Code and Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning ITE, complemented by contemporary academic literature on AI criminality and international cybercrime instruments. The findings reveal critical gaps in the current regulatory framework, suggesting that existing provisions are inadequate to address the complexities of AI-based crimes such as deepfake fraud, automated hacking, and algorithmic manipulation. The study proposes a hybrid liability model that integrates the principles of strict liability, negligence-based liability, and vicarious liability adjusted to AI risk categories. The study concludes that effective deterrence requires reconceptualization beyond punitive sanctions to include preventive mechanisms, while legal certainty demands risk-based differentiated standards and capacity building of digital forensics supported by international cooperation frameworks.

Keywords: artificial intelligence; criminal liability; digital crime; prevention theory; legal certainty.

References

Arifin, Z. (2025). Criminal Liability in Press Law and Artificial Intelligence- Generated Disinformation : Urgency of Reform in Indonesia. 8(3), 419–446.

Chamberlain, J. (2023). The Risk-Based Approach of the European Union ’ s Proposed Artificial Intelligence Regulation : Some Comments from a Tort Law Perspective. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2022.38

Chen, X. (2022). Di ff erent Shades of Norms : Comparing the Approaches of the EU and ASEAN to Cyber Governance. 57(3), 48–65.

Csongor, H. (2020). Artificial Intelligence In Cybersecurity: Examining Liability, Crime Dynamics, And Preventive Strategies. 8, 730–747.

Daraojimba, R. E., Farayola, O. A., Olatoye, F. O., Mhlongo, N., Oke, T. T., Technology, F., Houston, I. R., Power, C., Africa, S., & Marketing, Y. (2023). Forensic Accounting In The Digital Age: A U.S. Perspective: Scrutinizing Methods And Challenges In Digital Financial Fraud Prevention. 5(11), 342–360. https://doi.org/10.51594/farj.v5i11.614

Dwiandari, A. S., & Arifin, R. (2025). Criminal Law Enforcement on Digital Identity Misuse in AI Era for Commercial Interests in Indonesia. 7(1), 37–66.

Felix, A. O., Olabode, O. J., & Ayeni, J. K. (2023). The Criminalization Of The Internet And Cybercrime In General: A Comprehensive Study.

Fiorinelli, G., Zucca, M. V., Zucca, M. V., & Fiorinelli, G. (2025). Regulating AI to Combat Tech-Crimes : Fighting the Misuse of Generative AI for Cyber Attacks and Digital Offenses. 2023.

Floridi, L. (2019). Establishing the rules for building trustworthy AI. Nature Machine Intelligence, 1(June), 261–262. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-019-0055-y

Floridi, L., & Cowls, J. (2019). A Uni?ed Framework of Five Principles for AI in. 1, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1162/99608f92.8cd550d1

Floridi, L., Cowls, J., Beltrametti, M., & Chatila, R. (2018). AI4People — An Ethical Framework for a Good AI Society : Minds and Machines, 28(4), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-018-9482-5

Gilbert, C., & Gilbert, M. A. (2024). The Security Implications of Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) -Powered Autonomous Weapons : Policy Recommendations for International Regulation. 9(4), 205–219.

Gojali, D. S., & Mangkurat, U. L. (2023). Identifying the Prevalence of Cybercrime in Indonesian Corporations : A Corporate Legislation Perspective Ten Riskiest Countries in terms of Cybercrime Rate. 17(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4766600

Graph, K., Hu, R., Li, Z., Li, J., Hopkins, J. K., Spranklin, B. W., & Gupta, S. K. (2019). Technology Framework of the Intelligent Command and Control System Technology Framework of the Intelligent Command and Control System. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/677/4/042099

Hildebrandt, M. (2013). Data Protection by Design and Technology Neutral Law.

Hildebrandt, M., & Koops, B. (2025). The challenges of ambient law and legal protection in the profiling era The Challenges of Ambient Law and Legal Protection in the Pro ¢ ling Era.

Inquiries, T., Publication, L., Version, D., Self, I., Agnostic, F., Learning, A. M., & Inquiries, T. (2019). Privacy as Protection of the Incomputable Self : From Agnostic to Agonistic Machine Learning.

Junaidi. (2024). Legal Reform Of Artifical Intielligences Liability To Personal Data Perpectives Of Progressive Legal Theory.

KAN, C. H. (2024). Criminal Liability Of Artificial Intelligence From The Perspective Of Criminal Law: An Evaluation In The Context Of The General Theory Of Crime And Fundamental Principles. 276–313.

Kumar, P. (2023). Determination of Civil and Criminal liability of Artificial intelligence. https://doi.org/10.53361/dmejl.v4i01.06

Lagioia, F. (2020). AI Systems Under Criminal Law : a Legal Analysis and a Regulatory Perspective. 433–465.

Liability, C., From, A., Use, T. H. E., & Artificial, O. F. (2025). CRIMINAL LIABILITY ARISING FROM THE USE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. 10(1), 11–23.

Longpre, S., Kapoor, S., Klyman, K., Ramaswami, A., Bommasani, R., Blili-hamelin, B., Huang, Y., Skowron, A., Yong, Z., Kotha, S., Zeng, Y., Shi, W., Yang, X., Southen, R., Robey, A., Chao, P., Yang, D., Jia, R., Kang, D., … Henderson, P. (2024). A Safe Harbor for AI Evaluation and Red Teaming. 1–19.

Mittelstadt, B. D., Allo, P., Taddeo, M., Wachter, S., & Floridi, L. (2016). The ethics of algorithms : Mapping the debate. December, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951716679679

Mohamed Fathi Shehta Diab. (2024). Criminal Liability for Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Systems.

Mulyono, F. I. (2025). Permasalahan Pemutusan Hubungan Kerja Melalui ARTIFICIAL Intelligence (Ai). 5(1).

Nadya, P., Putri, T., Agung, A., Ngurah, A., & Rusmini, T. (2025). Pengaturan Hukum dalam Penanggulangan Deepfake Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) terhadap Anak sebagai Korban Kejahatan Siber di Indonesia. 713–728. https://doi.org/10.24843/JMHU.2025.v14.i03.p09

Nerantzi, E. (2024). ‘Hard AI Crime’: The Deterrence Turn. 44(3), 673–701.

Nicolas Petit. (2017). Law And Regulation Of Artificial Intelligence And Robots: Conceptual Framework And Normative Implications. March, 1–31.

Nuhi, M. H. (2024). Pembaharuan Hukum Penanganan Tindak Pidana Pemalsuan Identitas Akibat Penyalahgunaan Artificial Intelligence Di Indonesia. 1.

Putra, T. H. (2024). Law Enforcement Against Cyber Crime In Electronic Transactions In Indonesia. December, 37–45.

Putri, W. M. J. (2025). Urgensi Pengaturan Terhadap Penyalahgunaan Artificial Intelligence Pada Tindak Pidana Malware Di Indonesia. 10(3).

Selbst, A. D., & Vertesi, J. (2019). Fairness and Abstraction in Sociotechnical Systems. 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287560.3287598

Smejkal, V. (2024). Challenges and Solutions to Criminal Liability for the Actions of Robots and AI. 9(1), 65–84.

Tentang, U.-U. R. I. N. 19 T. 2016, & Perubahan Atas Undang-Undang Nomor I1 Tahun 2008. (2016). Tentang Informasi Dan Transaksi Elektronika.

Truby, J., Dean, R., & Ibrahim, I. A. (2022). A Sandbox Approach to Regulating High-Risk Artificial Intelligence Applications. December 2020, 270–294. https://doi.org/10.1017/err.2021.52

Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 1 Tahun 2023 Tentang Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Pidana. (2023). 16100.

Velasco, C. (2022). Cybercrime and Artificial Intelligence . An overview of the work of international organizations on criminal justice and the international applicable instruments. ERA Forum, 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12027-022-00702-z